Managerial Roles

 

           Managers at COM are aware that they must perform ceremonial and symbolic duties such as greeting visitors in the company because it is a part of their job as managers. These managers freely exercise their figurehead roles such as ribbon-cutting ceremonies and hosting functions in the organization. Moreover, they are responsible enough in motivating, training and counseling their subordinates. Managers in the department also forge links both inside and outside the organisation. It is visible in their management that constant communication with both internal and external personalities of the organization is vital to maintain stability in the organization. It is important in the department to require managers of networking skills to shape and maintain internal and external contacts for information exchange.

 

            Managers at COM also seek and receive information from many sources to evaluate the organisation's performance, its well-being and situation; build and use an intelligence system; bring external views into the organisation and facilitate internal information flows between subordinates; disseminate information; lobby to other organisations under STC COM’s concerns; exude a positive disposition towards the objectives of the company.

 

            It is apparent that the managers at COM are sincere in improving the organisation’s productivity and employee satisfaction. Moreover, they are aware of their role as initiators of change. In taking corrective actions during disputes and crises managers are effective in solving conflicts by being fair. In general, managers at COM use their powers properly in deciding who gets resources, scheduling and budgeting.

 

Managing People

            Employees at the COM department are increasingly demanding change, choice, flexibility, and variety in their work; suggesting that with the empowerment of individual employees, the future for both the organisation and the individual lies in developing the value of the individual as human capital. The value of human capital is enhanced by acquisition of higher performance potential such as new tasks, functions, and knowledge, skills, abilities, personal attributes.

           

            At COM, employees are given clearer direction on how to do their jobs well. Majority of the staff feels that their jobs at COM are meaningful ones. This is because of the clear relationship between their jobs and the goals of the department. The organisation considers its employees’ skills and abilities in designing jobs for them. As a result, many employees are satisfied with the procedures and processes involving the completion of their work. COM also introduces to employees more challenging opportunities at work such as participation to interesting projects with increased responsibility.

 

            The company recently reviewed its compensation plans. It was decided that compensation must be linked in relation to sales and service performance. At COM, the management careful and fair in giving incentives for sales and service performance. Managers often use recognition system and intrinsic reward as compensation and motivation of maintaining superior service. Further, the department only hires those who are highly qualified employees and retains them for further improvement. COM also provides a training program to enhance their skills and abilities and productivity.

            The author has witnessed many training sessions take place in the department. However, the author finds that the training in the company is not effective because it happens once a year, or only when the company is doing badly in terms of sales. There is currently no formal system of employee training; hence, once they arrive on board, they automatically follow an unstructured plan of job shadowing.  Moreover, the training happens once a year because the company lacks funds. The company boasts its being one of the best telecommunication providers in the country. However, it seems that the company does not prioritise employee training. 

 

            COM satisfies the needs of the employees. These needs include flexible times, reward and bonuses, harmonious working environment, safety and other sociological needs. There is also an evidence of empowerment among employee in the department. This empowerment results to an increased competence, self-esteem and self-respect, which are very important to one’s well-being.  Creating an environment in the workplace that results in employees feeling better about themselves when they are in it results in love of their work. People who enjoy working are more productive.

 

            Every company has its own measurement and evaluation of managerial and employee performance in pursuing strategies and actions which enable it to achieve the organisational goals.  At COM, selection of performance measures is made in the light of the company’s strategic intentions that are appropriate in pursuit of the goals and remain competitive in the industry. At COM, performance management involves selecting the right measures to gauge business results, establishing standards, track actual accomplishment, and provide guidance to success.

 

Organisation Performance

            COM tries to be innovative and is able to differentiate its product flexibility as well as the service delivery in the marketplace.  As business leaders nowadays are more aware of the quality service, in addition to sales result for their long-term health and profits, COM bases the performance of its managers and employees through service and product quality. The quality of products and services is seen as the most important factor affecting a business unit's performance, and see quality as the most effective way for business growth, expansion and gains in market share. 

Conclusion

This assignment found that managers at the COM department are aware of their roles. As illustrated by some researchers, managerial roles are not confined within the walls of their office. Instead, they perform multiple tasks from greeting the visitors to managing information to decision-making. This new organisation enables managers to have multiple roles to improve the company unit’s productivity and efficiency.

In addition, this assignment found that since the COM organisation is fully based on asset management principles, it provides a structure which is geared towards growth and value creation. It is focused on technical integrity of product flow assets, infrastructure and business processes.

Further, the knowledge of the theories on personality performance and individual skills enable decision-makers manage an organisation effectively. Managers are interested in human behaviour because they desire to predict behaviours at work. By knowing how people react, managers can mold the behaviours that concern them such as absenteeism, productivity and turnover. Human behaviour at work can be viewed on either an individual or group level. Individual characteristics include attitudes, personality, perception, learning and motivation. Group characteristics include norms, roles, team building and conflict.

Having knowledge of these theories, managers are able to address issues on job satisfaction, job involvement and organisational commitment. Job satisfaction is the general attitude expressed about the task; job involvement is the degree an employee identifies with his/her job; and organisational commitment is the loyalty expressed for the organisation itself. Consequently, managers are able to design effective programs that increase employee productivity and consider the importance of employee appraisal.

Recommendation

COM should be aware of the nature of its organisational culture in order for it to determine what aspects of the organisation need to be evaluated. COM should recognise and understand the beliefs, attitudes and behaviors that prevalent in the working environment. Managers should promote sharing, learning and consistency. Managers should continue practicing their three roles (interpersonal, informational and decisional) for a successful organisation.

It is important to have the right individuals to make up an organization’s workforce at the right time and right place.  To be able to do that, the organisation must be able to recruit and retain competent individuals to match the constant changing job skills.

Organisations must realise that in order for them to recruit, develop, and retain skill employees for future missions, they need to unleash their human resource employee relation’s imagination to create capability and flexibility to institutionalize a well-defined system to expedite the handling of disputes and grievances. Therefore, it is imperative that human resource departments adopt a modern day progressive employee relation’s paradigm that embraces and enhances the recruitment, development, and retention of employees in concert with human capital strategic management planning initiatives.

 

MANAGING PEOPLE AND ORGANISATIONS

 

Introduction

         This assignment discusses some issues on managing people and organisation. This assignment presents the Saudi Telecom (STC) as a case study. Specifically, the assignment covers the people and organisation within the Telecommunication Network Operations (NO) - Centralised Operation and Management (COM) Department. This paper provides a background to the company; description of the company’s business environment including the task and macro environments; description of technical core and work processes, structure, culture and management systems; and how the people are managed. Moreover, this assignment assesses performance and effectiveness and efficiency of the organisation; analyses the factors listed above; and provides recommendations for changes.

 

What is the Organisation?

            Saudi Telecom (STC) provides timely integrated telecom solutions that provide optimum value to all stakeholders. Moreover, it enriches people's personal lives and contributes to their business success by offering high quality communication services that reflect their true needs. STC is determined to deliver results on its journey to become a customer focused and competitive company. The company is confident of its large market share and believes that investors are confidently investing in the company.  Saudi Telecom is a company that people will be proud to work for.

 

            Saudi Telecom was established in 1988 and, since then, has delivered a range of positive results that have delivered a better service to more customers. This has been achieved through an ambitious transformation & restructuring program compound with an extensive expansion of our network and infrastructure.

            As part of corporate social responsibility, the Saudi Government announced that by the end of 2002, 30% of Saudi Telecom shares will be released for sale to Saudi citizens & organisations: Saudi citizens (20%), General Organization of Social Insurance (GOSI) (5%), and Pension Fund Organization (5%). By the end of the subscription period, requests for shares exceeded the number offered by 3.5 times. This move clearly indicates that Saudi people are confident of STC’s success and trust in its future.

 

            The author works in the Telecommunication Network Operations (NO) - Centralised Operation and Management (COM) Department. Under this department, the author belongs to the OSS COM Support division. Our job includes carrying out operations and maintenance of COM applications that support STC-NO users to perform centralized operation and management of remotely sited Network Elements efficiently and with minimum service outage. We make sure that the existing COM systems and tools are efficiently and accurately managed to enable full resources utilisation, to get optimise performance, to minimise service outages and to help in expediting service restoration of STC Network.

 

            The author finds it necessary to write about the organisational culture, performance and management within the Centralised Operation and Management Department. This is because the author is familiar with the structure and culture of the organisation. The author has been working in the department for ___ years.

 

External Environment      

            The COM department has a complex environment. Due to this complexity, the department is considering all the factors that affect its task environments. Some factors such as political-legal and economic climates are encouraging to the growth of the department. However, the sociocultural climate is posing a challenge. Nevertheless, COM is generally having a stable environment.

 

            The political-legal climate of corporations in Saudi Arabia has been generally encouraging. This is especially for STC in which it reciprocates the government’s trust on the company by sharing 30 percent of its shares to the government. Likewise, the economic climate in Saudi Arabia has seen the growth of systems of wealth production, distribution and consumption. However, inflations and recessions affect the operation of COM. These are the factors over which we have little control.

 

            The sociocultural climate represents the attitudes, values, norms, beliefs, behaviours and associated demographic characteristics of the population within which an organisation operates (Daft 1997, p. 78). As Saudi Arabia is a melting pot of other Asian workers (especially workers from the Southeast Asian Region), we are particularly faced with the problem of sociocultural differences between countries. In operating and managing COM applications that support STC-NO users, we have to consider our customers’ values and beliefs. To do this we conduct studies to identify the concerns of our customers.

 

            The technological climate includes scientific and technological advancements in the production of goods and services (Daft 1997, p. 77). Technology for COM is of particular importance because it has been and continues to be the main source of increases in productivity, which means it can either provide a competitive advantage to organisations that can use it effectively, or pose a threat to those that lack it. To remain competitive therefore, it is important that we need to understand current technology developments affecting their ability to offer desirable products and services.

 

 

 

Organisation Structure

            The directors in the COM have a "functional" responsibility, that is, they are also ultimately responsible for the development of staff in a particular discipline. In the execution of this second responsibility, they are assisted by corporate functional discipline heads, who — like the directors — generally have dual role that combines functional with line-management responsibilities. The department introduced the team-leader in its structure to improve the company unit’s productivity and efficiency.

 

            The organisation is largely based on asset management principles and provides a structure which is geared towards growth and value creation. It is focused on technical integrity of product flow assets, infrastructure and business processes. Moreover, single-point accountability for the day-to-day management, performance and development of all assets has been introduced and a number of management layers has been removed. The organisation is based on “single-point responsibility”, and it has fewer layers then pervious structure.

 

            COM structure is mainly functional as well as team-based. Span of control is narrow and specialized; jobs are grouped according to resources used or output; promotion is within specialization; differentiated horizontally from other functions; and communication is vertical. Moreover, the organisational structure at COM is temporary. Jobs are grouped according to project objectives and are differentiated from other teams. It is the team which links members’ departments. Rewards are based on team success/failure

 

Organisational Culture

            The working environment and organisational culture within COM is generally one of trust. Unlike the other departments under STC, staff members of COM are having a high job satisfaction. The department director makes sure that human resource practices are clarified and harmonized and that human resource policies and procedures are applied consistently. There are space for ideas and new concepts within as well as outside of the COM.

 

            An interesting characteristic that reflects the culture of the COM organization is ‘games’. In organizational theories, games are defined as the systems of influence of an organization which are distinct from the administrative power structure or hierarchy. Among the games that have been observed in the organisation are sponsorship games which are played to build a power base by using a superior. Another is the alliance-building games which are played amongst peers to build a stronger power base. I have also witnessed management versus staff games and whistle-blowing games which are played by a lower level employee who ‘blow the whistle’ on questionable behaviors. Although these cases are very few.

 

            The culture within COM organisation suits the work processes and organisation structure. A structure with a few level is suitable in an organisational culture where staff are working as a team. Through this structure, blatant hierarchy and power play are avoided in the department. A structure with many levels, on the other hand, would seem to heighten the games being played in the organisation.  

Arbitration - Background of the Study

 

In this day, transactions often take place through the World Wide Web. Commercial transactions conducted on this medium are labelled as e-commerce. Nevertheless, with the purpose for e-commerce to persist to flourish, legal confidence should subsist such that commercial transactions completed online will be put in force in the physical world. A dependable and enforceable dispute resolution mechanism customized exclusively to the needs of the e-commerce milieu would assist in the progress of such officially authorized certainty. Proposed solutions on online dispute include online alternative dispute resolution (ADR) intuitions that assimilate either a mediation or arbitration model, or some sort of combination of the two. [1] As noted earlier, the idea of taking legal action in a foreign jurisdiction under foreign rules is taken rather anxiously by all businesses engaged in international transactions, including those now partaking in online ventures. The best solution historically for the resolution of international commercial disagreements has been conventional ADR services.

As stated earlier, ADR is normally speedy, efficient and confidential. Nevertheless, it is inappropriate for settling online commercial disputes, predominantly for the reason that legal revolution have insulated in the wake of the changes in the social, technological, and commercial mores of cyberspace. Moreover, creative entrepreneurs and academics have thus devised dispute resolution programs on the web.[2] The aptitude to play a part in an online proceeding of this category generates a freer market for dispute resolution, a market unfettered by anxiety of locality or time. The accessibility of online arbitration services enables parties at any place and at any time to commence or take action to a petition by accessing a website and finishing electronic forms that steer them through the numerous stages of the course of action. Moreover, the individual parties are able to become accustomed to the process particularly to their precise needs and utilize multimedia technology to conserve time and money.[3] This sleek and collectively obtainable process diminishes entry impediments to arbitration for businesses and individual parties, providing a new means of access to justice.

Initially, the individual factions on the web more often wouldn’t have seen each other in the physical world considering they live actually in different nations or continents. In the real world, common consumers do not habitually go into an international agreement. On the other hand, in the Internet, they would have taken advantage of small transactions, which is unusually for them considering they would have second thoughts in acquiring assets in the physical world. [4] Courts normally are slow and expensive. Furthermore, courts are considered as a financially irrational channel to resolve disagreement arising from the World Wide Web. The factions to such small or medium-sized disagreements in the web will time and again have hardwearing economic enticement not to pursue court proceedings, leaving the fraudulent party with a victory.[5]

Additionally, online arbitration could provide this effectiveness, because the alternative to legal actions in courts is barely negligible and therefore much less costly.[6] Nevertheless, difficulties follow from this form of legal effectiveness. Online arbitration compels the factions to give up some of their liberties, which does not stimulate faith and which is the motive why arbitration at present still deal with a sequence of legal hindrances. In terms of the claims of the consumer, there is for instance a predicament of arbitrability beneath a quantity of regulations. [7]Though it is acceptable that most of these legal hindrances are simply errors in the legal system these obstacles are still there.

The international market offered by e-commerce creates peril that may be taken in hand by incorporating arbitration clauses in online contracts. Introducing numerous customers one click far from carrying out a business deal that generates the risk of thousands of consumers putting on record lawsuits in their domestic locations or a fusion in a class action lawsuit.[8]

The process of arbitration occurs when a third party is chosen by the parties involved, or proposed by the institution selected by the factions, provides a decision on a case while applying fundamental procedural principles. Conventionally, similar to traditional arbitration, its online counterpart resolves a dispute by making a practical decision.[9] This is what is labelled as the binding form of arbitration. It is a procedure where judgments are enforceable by the powers that be. The philosophy of binding arbitration online is that it comprises a mode of private judging, a substitute for court litigation.

Thus, in the milieu commerce in the World Wide Web, arbitration's supplementary remuneration of guaranteeing an adjacent medium for resolution of the dispute and eliminating the presence of class action lawsuit stand up to added importance.[10] Online arrangements may take account of an arbitration stipulation with a forum assortment clause and a preference of law clause.

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[1] Lasprogata, G. (2001) Virtual Arbitration: Contract Law and Alternative dispute

            resolution, Journal of Legal Studies Education Vol. 19 No. 107

[2] Katsh, E., Rifkin, J., Gaitenby, A., (2000) E-commerce, E-Disputes, and E-Dispute Resolution in the Shadow of eBay law, Ohio State Journal of Dispute Resolution, No. 15 , pp.705

[3] Katsh, E.,  (2000) New frontier. Online ADR becoming a global priority, in Dispute         Resolution Magazine, winter,  pp..6.

[4] Lalive, P., (1999) Towards a Decline of International Arbitration?, The Journal of the Chartered Insitute of Arbitrators, No. 4.

[5] Vahrenvald, A. (2000) Out of Court dispute settlement systems for e-commerce,            Report on legal issues, Joint Research Centre of the EC, Ispra (Italy), 29th       May

 

[6] Lasprogata, G. (2001) Virtual Arbitration: Contract Law and Alternative dispute resolution, Journal of Legal Studies Education Vol. 19 No. 107

 

[7] supra. Katsh, E., Rifkin, J., Gaitenby, A., (2000)

[8] supra. Lalive, P., (1999)

[9] supra. Vahrenvald, A. (2000)

 

[10] supra. Katsh, E.,  (2000)

Arbitration - Introduction

 

            Arbitration is a legal alternative to the courts whereby the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective positions (through agreement or hearing) to a neutral third party (the arbitrator(s)) for resolution.

            Since arbitration is based either upon contract law or, in the case of international arbitration, the law of treaties, the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding contract. All arbitral decisions are considered to be "final and binding." This does not, however, void the requirements of law. Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (e.g. criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration.

            Arbitration exists under both domestic and international law, and arbitration can be carried out between private individuals, between states, or between states and private individuals. In the case of arbitration between states, or between states and individuals, the Permanent Court of Arbitration and the International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) are the predominant organizations. International arbitral bodies for cases between private persons also exist, the International Chamber of Commerce Court of Arbitration being the most important. The American Arbitration Association is a popular arbitral body in the United States. Arbitration also exists in international sport through the Court of Arbitration for Sport.

            Moreover, when arbitration occurs under domestic law, either party to an arbitration may appeal the arbitrator's decision to a court, however the court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award conflicts with positive law. Some jurisdictions have instituted a limited grace period during which an arbitral decision may be appealed, but after which there can be no appeal. In the case of arbitration under international law, a right of appeal does not in general exist, although one may be provided for by the arbitration agreement, provided a court exists capable of hearing the appeal.

            Some domestic jurisdictions have stipulated that judges may require either arbitration or mediation of certain disputes as a first step toward resolution, family law (particularly child custody) being a prime example.

            Arbitrators are not bound by precedent and have great leeway in such matters as: active participation in the proceedings, accepting evidence, questioning witnesses, and deciding appropriate remedies. Arbitrators may visit sites outside the hearing room, call expert witnesses, seek out additional evidence, decide whether or not the parties may be represented by legal counsel, and perform many other actions not normally within the purview of a court. It is this great flexibility of action which, combined with costs usually far below those of traditional litigation, makes arbitration so attractive.

            No definitive statement can be made concerning the credentials or experience levels of arbitrators, although some jurisdictions have elected to establish standards for arbitrators in certain fields. Several independent organizations offer arbitrator training programs, such as the American Arbitration Association, and thus in effect, credentials. Generally speaking, however, the credibility of an arbitrator rests upon reputation, experience level in arbitrating particular issues, or expertise/experience in a particular field. Arbitrators are generally not required to be members of the legal profession.

            A growing trend among employers whose employees are not represented by a labor union is to establish an organizational problem-solving process, the final step of which consists of arbitration of the issue at point by an independent arbitrator. Most collective bargaining agreements in organizations where employees are represented by a labor organization stipulate that the final step of any grievance procedure shall consist of arbitration.

            To ensure effective arbitration and to increase the general credibility of the arbitral process, arbitrators will sometimes sit as a panel, usually consisting of three arbitrators. Often the three consist of an expert in the legal area within which the dispute falls (such as contract law in the case of a dispute over the terms and conditions of a contract), an expert in the industry within which the dispute falls (such as the construction industry, in the case of a dispute between a homeowner and his general contractor), and an experienced arbitrator.

 

Arbitration is a device whereby the settlement of a question, which is of interest for two or more persons, is entrusted to one or more other persons, the arbitrator or arbitrators, who derive their powers from a private agreement, not the authority of a State, and who are to proceed and decide the case on the basis of such an agreement. [1] Moreover, arbitration has also been defined as a mechanism for the settlement of disputes between parties, either by a person appointed by themselves or by relying upon procedures or institutions chosen by the parties.[2] In his definition of arbitration, Robert highlights the similarity between arbitration and litigation: "Arbitration means instituting a private jurisdiction by which litigations are withdrawn from the public jurisdictions, in order to be resolved by individuals vested, for a given case, with the powers to judge such litigations.'' [3]

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[1] David, R. (1985) Arbitration in International Trade . Deventer, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers.

 

[2] van den Horen, H. (1984) "Commercial Disputes and Their Settlement: A Factor in Business Planning" in International Arbitration: 60 Years of ICC Arbitration--A Look at the Future . ICC Publishing, Paris.

 

[3] Robert, J. (1967) Arbitrage: Civil et Commercial .  Dalloz, Paris.

 

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS: EXAMPLE

Scope and Limitations

The study intends to investigate the similarities and differences of public and privately owned firms. For this study, primary research and secondary research will be used. Primary research will be conducted using anonymous questionnaires that will be sent to randomly selected private and public employees. The researcher will also be conducting focus group interview with managers and administrators of particular institutions. The questionnaires will be used to collect quantitative data and the interviews will be used to provide qualitative insights into the data collected.

The data will be analyzed and compiled for the correlation of the hypothesis. The data will then be presented by means of graphical representations and illustration and the difference would be highlighted. A negative correlation between the variables would suggest that the hypothesis is null, that is, there is no significant difference between the learning transfer of both public and privately owned firms.

 

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESIS: EXAMPLE

Aims and Objectives

Statement of the Problem

The study intends to conduct a comparative study of the transfer of learning of both public and private sector in Malaysia. Specifically, the study would like to answer the following questions:

1.  What are the training techniques conducted by both private and public firms in Malaysia?

2.  How do private and public firms choose their trainees?

3. How do these firms measure the level of learning the trainees have acquired from their training?

4. What is the level of learning of the trainees after they have finished their training from private and public firms?

5. Is there a significant difference between the level of learning acquired by the trainees from public and private firms?

 Hypothesis

This study would like to test the following hypothesis:

“There is no significant difference between the learning transfer of both public and privately owned firms.”

 

DIFFERENTIATING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS

Description of Topic

Scholars continue to debate the extent to which public and private organizations actually differ (Rainey 1997). Researchers have developed a variety of frameworks for highlighting different aspects of organizational structures and processes (Dahl and Lindblom 1953; Benn and Gaus 1983; Lan and Rainey 1992; Perry and Rainey 1988; Mitnick 1980). Others have delineated the traits or characteristics that are unique to public organizations and that focus on rules and job formalization, hierarchy, inefficient degree of bureaucratization (Pugh, Hickson, and Hinings 1969; see also Meyer 1982), and greater amounts of red tape (Bozeman 1993; Rainey, Pandey, and Bozeman 1995). Some investigations yield evidence that public organizations are more rule-oriented and inefficient (Perry and Porter 1982; Warwick 1975), while others suggest the opposite (Bozeman and Rainey 1998; Rainey, Pandey, and Bozeman 1995; Perry and Rainey 1988).

Traditionally, public organizations have multiple conflicting goals, serve multiple constituencies, and are not tied to market incentives. Some have argued that these factors have led to inflexible, bureaucratic structures coupled with particularist personnel practices (Bozeman 1987; Meyer 1982; Pearce, Branyiczki, and Bigley 1997). Such organizations are characterized by rigid rule structures, formalized job guidelines and responsibilities, formal means of communication, clear division of labor and hierarchical control, civil service systems, inflexible reward systems, strict reporting requirements, regulations, and constraints (Weber 1947; Meyer 1982; Perry and Porter 1982; Rainey 1983; Perry and Rainey 1988; Robertson and Seneviratne 1995). By comparison, private-sector organizations are driven primarily by market preferences, which dictate flexibility and responsiveness in both process and outcomes for survival. In theory then, private-sector organizations are likely to be less encumbered by rules and regulations. In addition, organizational effectiveness is more readily measured in terms of efficiency and profitability in private-sector organizations (Bozeman 1987 and 1993).

Nevertheless, there has been a dearth amount of material on the learning transfer offered by both sectors of the industry. This study intends to identify the difference of the private and public sector in their transfer of learning through training.

 

Significance of the Study

This study will be focusing on the comparison of learning through training of both private and public sectors in Malaysia. This study will primarily benefit both the youth and the leaders of both public and private sectors. The youth, especially those intent on a career in the either public or private industries will find out what is expected of them by the two, what future the industries has for them, and what they have to do to be competitive career-wise, in this type of industry.  As for the leaders, this study will show if their expectations and goals can be met by future batches of graduates.  Through feedback, they would be able to voice out their concerns regarding the quality of graduates and help the universities cope with their demands and the ever-changing needs of the industry.            Moreover, educators can gain from this study, as they find the connection between how they have designed their curriculum and what are the actual needs of the public and private sectors.  In that way, they would be able to make immediate changes, if necessary, or continued improvement of their programs, through further studies.  Any deficiencies in training can then be addressed by both the academe and the industry so that there won’t be any shortages in that field.

Finally, this study would benefit future researchers in the field of the public administration, business administration, education, and the social sciences since it depicts the future of the publicly and privately owned businesses and corporations and its varying effects to many sectors of society.

 

TRANSFER OF LEARNING AT THE WORK PLACE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTORS

Introduction  

The importance of training effectiveness has long been recognized as a crucial issue for organizations (Ford et al., 1997; Noe and Ford, 1992; Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). To the extent that employee-training programs are effective, organizations are able to avoid wasteful spending and improve performance and productivity. Thus, a key consideration for virtually all organizations is the expected return provided the organization for its training investment. Because it has been suggested that organizations are likely to increase their reliance upon and utilization of employee training programs in years to come (Noe, 1999), the effectiveness of training interventions in organizations is likely to become even more salient in the future (Blanchard and Thacker, 1999). In today' s international economy, workers must be prepared to change the way they do their jobs in order to capture the benefits from rapidly evolving technology. Training goes hand-in-hand with productivity, quality, flexibility, and automation in the best performing firms. (Office of Technology Assessment, 1990)

This is illustrated by several studies conducted by other authors regarding training. Specifically, Tannenbaum and colleagues (1993) provided an integrative framework for all the variables that influence the design and delivery of training (Cannon-Bowers et al 1995). The framework outlines in detail the pretraining and during-training conditions that may influence learning, as well as the factors that may facilitate the transfer of skills after training. Kozlowski & Salas (1997), drawing from organizational theory, discussed the importance of characterizing the factors and processes in which training interventions are implemented and transferred in organizations. Moreover, Kozlowski and colleagues (Kozlowski et al 2000) consider organizational system factors and training design issues that influence the effectiveness of vertical transfer processes. Vertical transfer refers to the upward propagation of individual-level training outcomes that emerge as team- and organizational-level outcomes. This issue has been largely neglected by researchers yet is suggested to be crucial to training effectiveness. Similarly, researchers have begun to understand and outline the barriers and myths that exist in organizations as they implement training (Salas et al 1999). In other work, Kraiger et al (1993) provided new conceptualizations of learning and evaluation theory, approaches, and measurement. These authors expanded Kirkpatrick's (1976) evaluation typology by incorporating recent notions in cognitive psychology.

In other more focused conceptual developments, studies such as that of Ford et al (1998) stand out. Their study appealed to the opportunity to perform construct as a way to understand the transfer of training process. Concurrently, Colquitt et al (2000) summarized (qualitatively and quantitatively) the literature on training motivation and offered a new, integrative model. Cannon-Bowers & Salas (1997) proposed a framework for how to conceptualize performance measurement in training. Thayer & Teachout (1995) developed a model to understand the climate for transfer in organizations, as well as in-training conditions that enhance transfer. Cannon-Bowers et al (1998) advanced a number of conditions, concepts, and interventions that may enhance practice. Ford and colleagues have looked at individual differences and learner control strategies (Ford et al 1998). Training researchers have also examined variables such as the pretraining context (Baldwin & Magjuka 1997), conscientiousness and training outcomes (Martocchio & Judge 1997), individual and situational characteristics that influence training motivation (Mathieu & Martineau 1997), and participation in developmental activities (Baldwin & Magjuka 1997), just to name a few.

Similarly, training to break down language barriers has also been looked upon by recent researches. Reeves and Wright (1996) suggest three main strategies these companies have for coping such as making better use of existing, language-skilled staff, recruiting new staff who already have the necessary English language skills, and organizing English language training for those who need it. Most companies use the last two options simultaneously; in recruitment, priority is given to staff that can operate in English, and language training is encouraged. Surprisingly, the first option is less frequently employed, as few companies have systematic and up-dated records about their staff's language competence.

Furthermore, a recurrent imprudent retort in company language training is that everyone in the organization, or anyone who wants and is willing, is sent or encouraged to go on language courses, with financial support within limits provided. Particularly in the European context, training may well be provided in a wide range of languages. Lester (1994) quotes Siemens as an example: "Siemens is one of the companies in Europe best known for its language-training policies. All its employees--40 percent outside Germany--have the opportunity to learn English, German, French and Spanish at the company's expense" (p. 43). The thinking behind such an approach is simply "the better our language proficiency, the better will we be able to operate in that language." While thinking of this kind is basically sound, it does not remedy the problems staff may be experiencing in their communication. Concurrently, Huhta (1997), in her pioneering study of language training in Finnish companies, suggests that general, non-targeted language courses only work with staff who are already extremely motivated, albeit sometimes motivated by company external factors like wanting to learn the language in order to cope on holidays abroad. When that happens, the studying of a foreign language has become a hobby sponsored by the company. As a result, these general courses are frequently unsuitable and ineffective from the corporate perspective, since they are unfocused, designed without reference to the communication needs of the organization and its technical area. Motivation may be difficult to keep up, as the general course gives the impression that the whole of the language is there to be mastered. Progress is also slow. As Reeves and Wright (1996) point out, the prospect is daunting, and the probability of non-completion is high.