A project may be defined as an
activity involving the conversion of material or data resources over a
constrained time frame. The need to focus on ways of improving performance and
utilization of resources has increased the demand for and the use of
project-based approaches. According to Cleland and
Gareis (1994), projects should transform an unsatisfactory (existing or future)
state to a better state within a certain time, using a limited effort. Rationally,
project management plays an important role in the process of the project
because it is the only way to organize the activity process within the project
effectively. Project management is simply the process of managing, allocating,
and timing resources to achieve a given goal in an efficient and expedient
manner (Badiru, 1993).
Projects come in simple or complex. The objectives that
constitute the specified goal may be in terms of time, costs, or technical
results. Several techniques have been created in order to execute this type of
management with ease. But before any further execution of the plans, it is
important to initially draw the boundaries that the project will affect so as
to determine the concerns and limitations of the projected goals and outcomes
of the project. As such evaluation of the success of the project will come with
ease since expectations have been enumerated from the beginning. This paper
presents a checklist of actions that will be undertaken for the efficient and
effective scope management of projects in the future.
Design
Projects
·
Complete a detailed situation
analysis to examine the context of the environment and to determine the need for
the project.
·
Involve the stakeholders of the
project so as to consider their needs and preferences.
·
Identify alternative options of
the organization so as to exhaust the available alternatives.
·
Set the assumptions and
objectives of the project to distinguish the direction as well as the standards
for project assessment.
·
Determine project size in order
to limit the concerns of the project, identify the necessary resources, and
evaluate its feasibility.
·
Examine the available resources
whether material or human that should be acquired to meet the goals of the
project.
·
Analyze the risks, benefits,
and costs of the project so as to ascertain the project's financial return that
will assist to the long-term goals of the organization.
·
Develop a master plan that
details the focus and concerns of the project's goals.
Manage
Projects
·
Document all the development
and changes of undertaking the project at all its stages.
·
Coordinate planning and project
efforts between all of the project participants.
·
Effectively and efficiently
manage information, technology and people.
·
Monitor and regularly evaluate
the development to ensure the timely completion of the project.
·
Ensure a logical intervention
strategy to minimize the unnecessary impact of undertaking the project.
·
Identify cross-cutting
objectives to be able to work on the project based on the assumptions
considered.
·
Prepare back-up plans to supply
assist for the possibility of unforeseen difficulty during the course of the
project.
·
Plan for capacity development
and sustainability to ensure the continuous implementation, control, and
evaluation of the project.
Close
Projects
·
Detail activities undertaken to
close the project.
·
Outline outstanding issues,
risks, operational matters and recommendations.
·
Determine
if the objectives of the projects were met.
·
Deliver all
the outputs generated by the project.
·
Enumerate the significance and benefits to
justify the cause and rationale of undertaking the project.
·
Prepare a
report or presentation that will detail the accomplishment of the project.
The art of planning for the future has always been a
human trait as humans are thinking individuals.
In essence a project can simply be captured on paper with a few simple
elements: a start date, an end date, the tasks that have to be carried out and
when they should be finished, and some idea of the resources (people, machines
etc) that will be needed during the course of the project. When the plan is one which involves different
things happening at various times, some of which are interconnected on each
other, plus resources needed at varying times and in different quantities and
perhaps working at different rates, determining the scope of the project is
required for its successful and timely completion.
Change Management
According to Fedor, &
Herold, (2004) change management refers to the formulation and assimilation
of change in a methodical process. The major objective of change management is
the introduction of innovative means and systems in the work organisation. This
can similarly be compared to the application of certain information
technologies in the company or the adoption of new marketing strategies.
Businesses must normally undergo change in order to evolve to a higher level of
for instance, stability, management or production (Gokce
& McGrath, 2011). Appointing a new head officer, for example, can
greatly enhance his subordinates based on his management principles and
personality.
Adding a new member in the organisation or
reconstructing an old company program are called smaller versions of change and
are significantly different from that of change management. The scope of
organisational change is much wider as compared to minor company changes. This
may include changing the company’s mission, reforming business operations,
application of new technologies, major group efforts, or adoption of new programs. Usually, the organisation is encouraged on
settling on change management due to external influences, usually termed as the
environment (Nickols, 2004). Thus, change management can alternately be defined
as the response of different business to changes brought about by environmental
influences in which organisations have minimal or absolutely no control over.
Perhaps the space between the new organisation design
and implementing it into actuality is the whole coverage of organisation change
and development. As mentioned in the introduction, people are adaptive to
change. However, certain skills must be present from the initiators of change
so as to successfully implement their project (Lucas,
2002). Thus, managers need to have the necessary abilities not only on
detecting what needs to be changed but also how to introduce the change
effectively.
A number of approaches can be done in order to introduce
change management in the organisation. There are approaches that are more
focused on what is needed to be changed, still others emphasise on how change
can be accomplished. Leavitt had defined three approaches to organisation,
which includes structure, technology and people (Nickson,
2005). New formal guidelines and procedures like organisation chart, budgeting
methods, rules and regulations can also be structural approaches on inducing
change. On the other hand, rearrangements in work flow through new physical
layouts, work methods, job descriptions and work standards can be done as
technological approaches. Some organisations stress on people approaches which
includes alterations in attitudes, motivation and behavioural skills. This can
be done through new training programs, selection procedures, and performance
appraisal schemes. Other descriptions have focused more on the how approaches
to organisation change. Based on one survey from previous studies on change
management, seven approaches frequently used by managers had been identified
(Greiner, 1967). These approaches had been categorised into three: the
unilateral power, which focuses on changing a component of the organisation;
shared power that emphasises on addressing change through group discussion and
agreement; and delegated power in which certain change catalysts or agents are
in charge of disseminating change.
Both Leavitt’s and Greiner’s concepts are both useful in
relation to change management and its application. However, if one will
analyse, the approaches differ in many ways. For instance, the structural
approaches are rather formal and impersonal, while people-inclined approaches
are more humanistic and democratic. Realising this, managers are to consider
the nature of their work environment in order to implement the most applicable
approach to initiate change. In the same way, company should make an evaluation
of the company’s needs and problems before implementing change. According to Barbeschi (2002), the process of
making an organization is simultaneously the growth and maintenance of
relationships among individuals who are working towards a common goal and the
actual accomplishment of tasks, individually and collectively. In any
organization, there exist two dimensions (Barbeschi, 2002). The technical
dimension includes elements that are generally visible but hard to decipher
like the control systems (recruitment mechanisms, administrative rules and
procedures, etc.), structures (departments and divisions and physical
facilities), and techniques and procedures (performance, working methods).
Change Leadership
There are four change management strategies to choose
from, these are the empirical-rational strategy, normative reeducative
strategy, power-coercive (Bennis et al, 1969) and the environmental-adaptive
strategy (Nickols, 2004). In the first
strategy, individuals are rational and follow their self-interest once
revealed. Herein, changes are basically based, on the communication and the
tendering of rewards. For the
normative-reeducative, the people are considers as social beings attached to
unique cultural norms and values. Here,
the changes focus on redeployment and redefining of the existing norms and
values of the organisations and adapting to new development brought about by
changes. On the other hand, for the
power-coercive techniques, the people are the primary submissive and will
probably do what they are asked or can be made to do. In this manner, the changes are based on the
employment of authority and the annoyance of sanctions. And lastly for the
least technique, the people are described as oppose loss and interference but
these people are more likely to adapt new circumstances. This means, that the
changes here are related to building of a new organisation and gradually
outsourcing people from the old to new.
In accordance with the literature, as stated in the work
of Leavitt (1964) and Bacal, (2011)., change
management process of the people and the technology that it utilises which is
known as the empirical-rational strategy. The project managers and the
management team who initiates the change management process should do its core
responsibility in determining the problems encountered by the whole
organisation in the implementation of the project. After such, evaluation of the problems, the
team who conducted the changes that the company will be taken, the teams should
also provide certain solutions to each of the problems. With thorough
investigation and evaluation of the company, they should found out that the
company is really in need of the change management plan. And through strategic
planning which is needed in conducting any organisational changes, the company
should enough time to investigate the current problems of the company, make a
necessary change management plan that will meet the requirements for the
company’s demand and implement the plan, strategically in relation with the
studied made by some experts. Moreover,
during the application and implementation of the change management plan, the
company and the project managers should not end its obligations; instead, for
them they should consider it as the beginning of more complicated
problems. When, the changes were
implemented like when the software program, communications services, human
resource management and the maintenance unit were all being enhanced, the management
team who imposed the changes of management and strategy for the company should
conduct its own evaluation in order to know the problems that the new imposed
management system had encounter (Boyd, 2011). And since all the employees became very vocal
about it, the company should easily known the problem and immediately provide a
solution for the sake of the stakeholders and the organisation/company as well.
With regards to ethical issues, the managers should be
able to take considerations of what would be the reaction of their employees to
the changes that would be imposed (Boyd, 2011). Furthermore, the managers should make sure
that their employees have undergone critical explanations about the reasons why
the change of management system and strategy is needed for a certain aspects
within the company (Ellerton, 2007). The managers should give the employees enough
time to master the skills and proficiency of their employees from maintenance,
communication services and human resource management in utilising the changes
made by the organisation. This is done
by providing them enough trainings and orientation to explain the changes made.
The unforeseen problems that the organisation might
encounter are the cultural differences of its stakeholders. When assessing the interaction between culture
and empowerment, the company must be able to identify and understand those
subcultures that might engender a work environment more or less empowering than
the larger organizational system (Wilkins & Dyer, 1988). The management
should be able to develop a thriving organizational culture and a stronger
organization by good management of the stakeholders, providing their needs and
the things that they deserve in order for them to be motivated for their sake
and for the organization’s sake as well.
In addition, Elements such as work processes, organization design,
career path, performance management and a compensation program are part of
human capital management strategy and a plan to ensure continuing success. The
change management process imposed by the company must have been seen that there
may also encounter problem with some of their stakeholders like employees,
customers and others.
Also, in managing
people, the human capital management should also incorporate a governance
process to ensure equality among employees. Hence, even though managing people
in organization is the most difficult responsibility to be taken, it is also
the most challenging part that if given enough attention, focus and
consideration, this would enhance the employees loyalty and hard work that may
not only benefit them but as well as the organization may it be a non-profit or
a profit oriented organization. In general, people can give more than what is
expected if the management were able to provide them extra hand and minds and if
the management give them extra time, extra information and extra people in
order to do their job properly.
Effect, Impacts and Problem of
Change
Business leaders often
imposed power to their subordinates in order to have a socially responsible
organisation (Yves, 2011). This effort usually changes not
only the culture of the business organisation but also their overall business
process. Over the past years people, business practices and the environment
have evolved. Change is the only thing that is constant in this ever changing
world. From the physical attributes of individuals, up to the environment,
change is very evident. Just like the environment and people, businesses also
undergoes changes, it can be either massive or minimal. But such changes often
create reactions to people/group involved such as resistance. Some of them tend
to react negatively while others practice the virtue of being socially
responsible, while others are not. Often times, changes occur in the management
of the corporation, in order to keep up with the competition. MacCalman &
Paton (2000) believed that the people who went home winners and on top have the
similar personality of successfully managing the changes in the circumstances.
Management of changes is a development that any businesses must undergo, a
business will not be absolute if it never experienced transformation or the
so-called change.
Actually, the effect,
impact and problem of change is about how people reacts on different changes
occur in their environment—workplace, home, community and business. But before
we discussed change management, the word change must be first defined.
According to Davidson (2001) “change is the significant difference in what was
before.” In a company it means finishing jobs in a new design, getting new
technologies, creating new directions, new administration processes, merging
and acquisitions and other vital development in a business.
In the occurrences of
change in an environment, people tend to show resistance. But organisations and
people that resist changes will inevitably face wider exposure to risks and
losses (Griffin, 1993). As illustrated in the book of Griffin (1993), there are
a number of situations in which change is necessary within the organisation
such as socially responsible activities that is being utilised by different
companies in order to cope up with the competition. Aside from what was
mentioned earlier, there are still many issues and concerns that are necessary
for change in the organisation, however the most substantial thing is that
organisations acknowledge that changes happen constantly for different reasons
and the management must address these changes as soon as possible to prevent
great losses.
There are so many
reasons why a business or an organisation goes in to changes. There are numerous reasons and factors for
considering changes. MacCalman & Parton argues that the most prominent
thing in organisations when it comes to changes is the external environment
which activates feedback. Some of the examples given by MacCalman & Parton
in the external environment that triggers changes in the organisation are:
- Changes in technology being utilised
- Changes in the tastes and expectations of
the consumers
- Changes due to competition
- Changes because of legislation by the
government
- Changes due to modifications in the
economy whether locally or internationally
- Changes in the communications media
- Changes in the value systems of the
society
- Changes in the supply chain
- Changes in the distribution chain
The second factor that
initiates change in the organisation is the internal changes which are the
reactions of the organisation to the external changes. Aside from the responses
there are also some factors that contribute to the internal changes, an example
of this is a new marketing strategy for existing and new products with
consideration to their stance of being socially responsible.
And finally, changes in
organisation happen if they try to act in advance in order to deal with the
expected risks and difficulty. An example is when an organisation anticipates
the problems that may occur and creates and devises plans to combat and negate
the impact of those problems.
Actually, people in an
organisation resist to such changes because of the incapacities of their
leader/manager. One of the keys for a successful organisation is a good manager
with excellent leadership traits. Can you imagine an organisation, a company,
or any other organisation succeeds without good governance? According to Kousez
& Posner (2002), credibility is the foundation of a good manager. A manager
should be credible for him to lead. In addition to this characteristic, a
manager should possess honesty, competence, aspiration, and a forward-looking
approach. Come to think of this, would you believe in managers who do not
practice what they preach, do not walk the talk, do not do what they say they
will do, and do not keep their promises? What would happen to the change
process in a company if managers are lacking of skills?
As part of the
development of the competitive advantage and positive reaction to the changes
of the business organisation with respect to leadership capabilities of
managers, several factors should be considered. Social responsibility, use of
power, change management and of course leadership among business industries
should be given enough priorities. If a proper leadership style and used of
power are used firms can have the edge it has to counter any threats, solve any
problems, and achieve its goals. Use of power given by leaders gives a company
critical edge to counter any threats from its competitors and its environment.
Use of power given by leaders helps to compete in a global business
environment. It steers the company into making right decisions and right
practices with regards to competitors thus enabling it to survive in the global
business environment. Actually, it gives a company critical edge to solve
problems it has. Through effective use of power and social responsibility this
solving problems can be easier for any company. Methods and preventive measures
can be formulated towards problems the company has. Use of power given by
leaders gives a company critical edge to achieve its goal. Companies use
different things to reach the goals and objectives they have. Without this the
goals cannot be easily reached. Furthermore, the use of power given by leaders
gives the company direction on what should be done. It provides ideas on what
approach will be used on certain situations. It also directs the company in
doing the right things so that the company can reach its goals.
As discussed, the
knowledge of the underlying sources of competitive pressure highlights the
critical areas where strategic changes may yield the greatest payoff, and
highlights the areas where business industry trends promise to hold the
greatest significance as either opportunities or threats. Understanding these
sources will also prove to be useful in considering areas for diversification,
though the primary focus is on strategy in the industry. With respect to the previous
discussion concerning people’s resistance on change, proper implementation
alone is not only the essential thing to change in an organisation. Other
factors such as change management, use of power and leadership also need enough
consideration.
Basically, change
management is a process in which all companies undergo. This is an important
procedure because it enables the organisation to make decisions that will be
advantageous and beneficial to the company. In addition, organisations that are
open to change are generally more successful compare to companies that resist
it. On the other hand, corporate leadership in accordance to their of power
focuses on the techniques and expertise of efficient organisation, planning,
direction, and control of the operations of a business. In this ever changing
global business environment a company must be competitive and do everything it
can to counter any threat from its competitors. Having a good leader gives the
company some edge in facing competition in the global business environment.
Companies take part in strategic alliances to attain advantage over their
competitors and for both companies to acquire benefits from each other. These
strategic alliances won’t be successful if there is no leadership. Leadership gives
many things to the company. It is an important aspect of a company. Although
leadership can come from core intellectual assets practical application is also
vital for the success of the company and for the company to be competitive in
the global business environment.
With regards to the issue of effect,
impact and problem of change, it is vital to relate in the issue of social
responsibility, we may argue that it is integral to any business’ success. We
may also wonder how the economy would affect consumers’ feelings over
time. Most of the research literature
came from an era of prosperity.
Consumers could afford to be discriminating. As economic times become
more difficult, would consumers forsake social responsibility for price? What does that say about the importance of
social responsibility for the consumer?
We will have to wait and see as consumer confidence wanes during hard
economic times.
Research evidence and professional
commentary (e.g. Smith, Thompson & Kenner, 1991) tout the benefits of giving
for the individuals in management. While
it is only natural that working outside of the corporate environment should
help to hone leadership skills, the return on investment for the individual is
not deeply addressed. While volunteerism
is a whole new business ethos than that of the profit world, the “warm fuzzies” that are created from
community involvement should lead to a more well rounded and confident citizen
whether in business or private life.
The business of business is
business. The good works of those who
spend their daily lives in business or the professions are not inherently more
noble than those made by men and women in other walks of life, but it is also
evident that through community involvement, the business community distinguishes
itself. It gives the community unique
qualities which define business. Those
in business are often tolerant of risk, embrace change, have the willingness to
commit, know how to be accountable, and have the ability to persevere in the
face of adversity. They are able to form
profitable partnerships that will benefit all involved including the community
and can translate those business principles to the public sector to insure
success i.e. success for the community and success for the business.
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