Lit Review: Attention in Classrooms

 

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter shall be discussing the findings of related researches to this study. It shall provide a discussion on the significance of this study to the existing literature. The contents of this portion of the study is gathered and collated from its secondary data.

 Attention in Classrooms

Students' cognitive performance and allocation of attention can depend on the degree of consistency between their past and present experiences in the classroom. Previous findings indicated that performance change due to evaluation and social comparison manipulations were simultaneously affected by students' past personal academic experiences. With the growing diversity among children in today's classrooms, teacher education programs are increasingly called on to prepare teachers who are able to respond competently to the demands of inclusive classrooms (Munby & Hutchinson, 1998). General education teachers are largely responsible for meeting the educational needs of all their students. However, many general educators do not perceive themselves as adequately prepared to provide a meaningful education to students with diverse needs (Hinders, 1995; Semmel, Abernathy, Butera, & Lesar, 1991), Existing preservice teacher education programs may be inadequate in terms of their abilities to prepare teachers to meet the needs of the diverse student population they will face in the 21st century (Maheady, Mallette, & Harper, 1996). Consequently, if teachers are to be successful in the classrooms of the future, teacher preparation programs must provide training in the knowledge and skills necessary for working with children with a wide range of ability levels in the same classroom.

Although there is substantial evidence that contingent teacher praise, approval, and other forms of positive reinforcement have positive effects on student behavior and achievement (Alber & Heward, 2000; Maag, 2001), some researchers have argued against the use of praise and rewards for student performance (Ryan & Deci, 1996). Kohn, who has gained considerable notoriety and popularity by giving speeches and writing papers and books for educators and business managers, has claimed that the use of "extrinsic motivators" such as incentive plans, grades, and verbal praise damage the "intrinsic motivation" of students and employees to learn and work (Kohn, 1993). Kohn has argued passionately and articulately--but without sound empirical bases--that not only is praise ineffective, it is actually harmful to students. He has claimed that praise increases pressure to "live up to" the compliment, insinuates unrealistic expectations of future success, insidiously manipulates people, establishes a power imbalance, insults people if awarded for unchallenging behaviors, and undermines intrinsic motivation.

Conventional wisdom holds that an extra measure of patience is required to be a good teacher of children with disabilities. This faulty notion does a great disservice to students with special needs and to the educators who teach them. Although patience is a positive and valued trait, in the classroom the idea that teachers must be patient with special education students often translates into slowed-down instruction, lowered expectations for performance, fewer opportunities to respond, and fewer in-class and homework assignments. A related piece of wisdom goes like this: Students with disabilities can learn, but they learn more slowly; therefore, they should be given extra time and instruction should be conducted at a slower pace. Although this reasoning possesses a degree of logic and common sense, research has found that slowing the pace of instruction makes things worse, not better, for students with learning problems. To illustrate, Carnine (1976) conducted an experiment in which instruction was presented to four first-grade remedial reading students at two paces: slow (intertrial interval of 5 seconds) and fast (intertrial interval of 1 second or less). Fast-paced instruction resulted in more learning trials presented by the teacher, more responses per lesson by the students, better accuracy of student responses, and better on-task behavior. Systematic replications of this study have yielded a similar pattern of results (Carnine & Fink, 1978; Darch & Gersten, 1985; Ernsbarger et al., 2001; Koegel, Dunlap, & Dyer, 1980; Williams, 1993).

Just as teaching too slowly impedes learning, teaching with excessive sensitivity to and patience for students with disabilities may lead to lower expectations, fewer assignments, and students' participation only when the students "feel like it." Educational research is unequivocal in its support for the positive relationship between the amounts of time children spends actively responding to academic tasks and their subsequent achievement (Brophy & Good, 1986; Fisher & Berliner, 1985; Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1984; Heward, 1994). When other key variables are held constant, such as quality of curriculum materials, students' prerequisite skills, and motivation, a lesson in which students emit many active responses will produce more learning than will a lesson of equal duration in which students make few responses (Gardner, Heward, & Grossi, 1994; Sterling, Barbetta, Heward, & Heron, 1997). Frequent opportunities to respond, high expectations, and fast-paced instruction are especially important for students with learning and behavioral problems, because for children who are behind to catch up, they simply must be taught more in less time. If the teacher doesn't attempt to teach more in less time the gap in general knowledge between a normal and handicapped student becomes even greater. (Kame'enui & Simmons, 1990, p. 11)

 Instead of patient teachers, students with disabilities need teachers who are impatient--impatient with instructional methods and materials that do not help their students acquire and subsequently use the knowledge and skills required for successful functioning in school, home, community, and workplace. Instead of waiting patiently for a student to learn, attributing lack of progress to some inherent attribute or faulty process within the child, a teacher should use direct and frequent measures of the student's performance as the primary guide for modifying instructional methods and materials to improve effectiveness. Nevertheless, there is widespread belief in education that creativity is a key to effective teaching. Like patience, creativity is a desirable and positive characteristic in teachers. Many thousands of ineffective lessons have been turned into effective ones by teachers who have creatively adapted instructional materials; developed prosthetic devices; or changed the mode, form, timing, or other dimension of a stimulus prompt. The kind of creativity most often implied by this notion, however, has little to do with systematically monitoring and analyzing a student's interaction with carefully planned materials and lesson plans to detect flaws in the instructional design that the teacher might then repair in some creative fashion (Heward & Dardig, 2001).

It is one thing for a teacher to creatively design and adapt instructional materials, examples, and procedures to add an extra degree or two of effectiveness to an already effective set of teaching skills. It is quite another thing for a teacher to be "creative" in the absence of a sound curriculum and repertoire of critical instructional skills. Instead of being told that being creative is the key to good teaching, teachers should be trained to realize that the first and most important requisite to effective teaching is obtaining the knowledge and skills necessary to select and properly use research-based instructional tools (Lovitt, 1996). Furthermore, teachers often hear that their profession is an art, not a science, and that not only is it permissible to teach in different ways from time to time, but such change is good for students. Adding variety to instructional activities and materials in an attempt to make lessons more interesting and fun for students is one way in which teachers frequently try to be creative. A teacher being creative in this way, however, must be careful not to inadvertently reduce students' opportunities to practice the target skill(s).

Telling teachers they must be creative may work against the systematic adoption of research-based curriculum and instructional tools. Since frequently changing methods and materials is a primary way for teachers to demonstrate their creativity. Some teachers feel that teaching the same way becomes boring and it is their right to be creative in the classroom (Purnell & Claycomb, 2001). Teachers are not in the classroom for their own enjoyment, however, they are in the classroom as professionals to do a job; children are not in the schools to be pawns for educators who want to try one unproven method after another because of fad, fashion, or creative whim (Engelmann, 1992). We may think that unlimited creativity is a good thing for teachers, but imagine how you would feel if the pilot on your next flight announced that he wanted to be creative and was going to try a new idea that he had heard about for landing airplanes. Teacher creativity will always have an important place in the classroom, but the need and direction for that creativity should be guided and subsequently evaluated by students' achievements, not the whims of teachers.

 

Action Research in the Classroom

Action research is deliberate, solution-oriented investigation that is group or personally owned and conducted. Spiraling cycles of problem identification, systematic data collection, reflection, analysis, data-driven action taken, and, finally, problem redefinition characterize it. The linking of the terms "action" and "research" highlights the essential features of this method: trying out ideas in practice as a means of increasing knowledge about and/or improving curriculum, teaching, and learning (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1982). While the concept of action research can be traced back to the early works of John Dewey in the 1920s and Kurt Lewin in the 1940s, it is Stephen Corey and others at Teachers College of Columbia University who introduced the term action research to the educational community in 1949. Corey (1953) defined action research as the process through which practitioners study their own practice to solve their personal practical problems. Very often action research is a collaborative activity where practitioners work together to help one another design and carry out investigations in their classrooms. Teacher action research is, according to John Elliott, "concerned with the everyday practical problems experienced by teachers, rather than the 'theoretical problems' defined by pure researchers within a discipline of knowledge" (Elliott, cited in Nixon, 1989). Research is designed, conducted, and implemented by the teachers themselves to improve teaching in their own classrooms, sometimes becoming a staff development project in which teachers establish expertise in curriculum development and reflective teaching.

The prevailing focus of teacher research is to expand the teacher's role as inquirer about teaching and learning through systematic classroom research (Copper, 1990). The approach is naturalistic, using participant-observation techniques of ethnographic research, is generally collaborative, and includes characteristics of case study methodology (Belanger, 1992). Moreover, action research has been employed for various purposes: for school-based curriculum development, as a professional development strategy, in pre-service and graduate courses in education, and in systems planning and policy development. Some writers advocate an action research approach for school restructuring.  (Holly, 1990; Jacullo-Noto, 1992; Lieberman, 1988; Oja & Smulyan, 1989; Sagor, 1992) Action research can be used as an evaluative tool, which can assist in self-evaluation whether the "self" is an individual or an institution.

There is a growing body of evidence of the positive personal and professional effects that engaging in action research has on the practitioner (Goswami & Stillman, 1987; Lieberman, 1988). Action research provides teachers with the opportunity to gain knowledge and skill in research methods and applications and to become more aware of the options and possibilities for change. Teachers participating in action research become more critical and reflective about their own practice (Oja & Pine, 1989; Street, 1986). Teachers engaging in action research attend more carefully to their methods, their perceptions and understandings, and their whole approach to the teaching process. Lawrence Stenhouse once said, "It is teachers who, in the end, will change the world of the school by understanding it" (cited in Rudduck, 1988). As teachers engage in action research they are increasing their understanding of the schooling process. What they are learning will have great impact on what happens in classrooms, schools, and districts in the future. The things teachers learn through the critical inquiry and rigorous examination of their own practice and their school programs that action research requires will impact the future directions of staff development programs, teacher preparation curricula, as well as school improvement initiatives.

Furthermore, teachers' action research questions emerge from areas they consider problematic, from discrepancies between what is intended and what actually occurs. As Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1990) suggest, the unique feature of teachers' questions is that they emanate solely neither from theory nor from practice, but from "critical reflection on the intersection of the two" (p. 6). Teacher research will force the re-evaluation of current theories and will significantly influence what is known about teaching, learning, and schooling. It has been said that teachers often leave a mark on their students, but they seldom leave a mark on their profession. Through the process and products of action research teachers will do both. (p.7)

The traditional action research approach described above has been extended into a form known as "participatory action research". An important change is the realignment of the roles of researcher and subject into more collaborative and synergistic forms. Formerly, responsibility for theorizing rested primarily on the shoulders of the researcher. In participatory action research, this responsibility is shared with client participants. In other words, members of the organization we study are actively engaged in the quest for information and ideas to guide their future actions. (Whyte et al., 1991, p. 20) This increased client participation is a major change. The single most distinguishing characteristic that contrasts participatory action research from earlier forms is the "co-researcher status" that is accorded to the client participants (Elden and Chisholm, 1993). Researchers and clients bring their own distinctive sets of theoretical knowledge into the action research process. Action researchers bring their knowledge of action research and general information systems theories. Client participants bring situated, practical theory into the action research process. As a result, control over the social setting is realigned. The setting is free to self-reorganize rather than be artificially determined by the external researchers. In this way, participatory action research is based on assumptions that reality is situated (Berger and Luckmann, 1966) and social systems are self-referencing (von Foerster, 1984). Participatory action research can be seen as being founded on more recent organizational philosophy.

In participatory action research, it is not necessary for researchers to extensively research theories surrounded the immediate problem setting in anticipation of action planning. It is assumed that the researcher cannot acquire the depth of understanding that client professionals will have already achieved through years of living within the social context under study. An indirect effect of the full collaboration of all participants is that participatory action research extends the social scope of action research. This extension has been noted both in studies beyond the level of a single production unit or plant, and in studies beyond the Anglo-American culture (Elden and Chisholm, 1993).

 

 

Music as Therapy

Activities and techniques incorporating music stimuli play potentially rich and varied roles in therapy for persons with autism. Music therapy techniques can, for example, facilitate and support the desire to communicate (Thaut, 1984); break patterns of isolation and engage the individual in external experiences (Baker, 1982; Thaut, 1984); reduce echolalic responses impeding functional language use (Bruscia, 1982); decrease stereotyped motility patterns (Scoraci, Deckner, McDaniel, & Blanton, 1982); teach social skills (Reid, Hill, Rawers, & Montegar, 1975); and facilitate increased language comprehension (Litchman, 1976). Because of individual differences within the autistic population, no universal rules of therapy can be applied. While one individual may respond positively to a certain technique, another might easily be harmed.

Characteristics of impaired socioemotional functioning can include lack of eye contact, lack of physical responsiveness, aloofness, lack of peer relations, often obsessive preoccupation with objects, and maintenance of environmental sameness. While these may change in intensity as the individual matures, social aloneness markedly remains (Thaut, 1984). Thaut (1984) further suggests that problems with social relations are also more amenable to initial therapy than are other underlying disorders. Autistic persons, especially in the early stages of relationship building, often physically reject or ignore social contact attempts by other persons. Music therapy can provide instead an initial object relation with an instrument. Instead of threatening, the shape, sound and feel of the instrument will often fascinate the individual. The instrument can thus serve as an intermediary between client and therapist, providing an initial point of contact (Thaut, 1984). At the same time, a trained music therapist can structure this experience from the outset in order to minimize motility rituals or sensory overload that may draw the individual back into himself or herself.

Listening experiences can provide additional tactile and visual experience and help to raise awareness of sound and of another person creating that sound. Music and musical experiences can provide infinite kinds of relationships which can be the key to successful therapy with autistic persons. Alvin (1975), in working with autistic children, was able to draw them slowly outward by using music to develop a series of relationships between the client and the instrument, the client and the therapist's instrument, the client and the music, the client and the therapist's music, the client and therapist, the client and other clients, and so on. Once the barrier has been interrupted and contact established, the music therapist could pursue a variety of structured musical experiences that continue to engage these individuals and draw them further from their internal, ritualistic world. While the process can be slow and arduous, music therapy provides an unusual and pleasurable tool that can be easily adapted to meet the changing needs of the client.  As, the individual progresses, and relationships begin to form music therapy can provide an effective means of teaching social skins as well. Schmidt, Franklin, & Edwards (1976) found music to be highly effective in shaping and reinforcing appropriate, social behaviors. Reid, Hill, Rawer, & Montegar (1975) found music to be instrumental in teaching social skills which,, in turn, facilitated the normalization of a child who had previously been isolated from everyday events.

Also significant in music therapy with autistic persons, is that all of the musical experiences can be structured for success. Although interactions may be limited by language problems, social relations can become warm and mutually satisfying if the autistic individual learns that he or she can succeed in the adapted, therapeutic environment. Nelson, Anderson, & Gonzales (1984) suggest that, in a sense, the social disability of autism may be the most treatable part of the disorder, especially in the context of music therapy, since it depends more on the quality of the experiences in their environment than on their underlying neuropsychological characteristics.

Music therapy techniques in the area of communication attempt to address speech/vocalization production processes and to stimulate mental processes in respect to conceptualization, symbolization, and comprehension (Thaut, 1984). On the most basic level, the music therapist works to facilitate and support the desire or necessity for communication. Improvised accompaniment to the individual's habitual expressions or behaviors can demonstrate a communicative relationship between a particular musical sound and the client's behavior. Autistic persons might perceive such sounds more easily or readily than verbal approaches, and awareness of the music and of a relationship between the music and the individual's own actions might serve to motivate communication (Thaut, 1984).

As the autistic individual begins to display communicative (verbal or nonverbal) intentions and responses, music can be used to encourage speech and vocalizations. Alvin (1975) suggests that learning to play wind instruments is in some ways, equivalent to learning to make speech vocalizations. It can also strengthen awareness and functional use of lips, tongue, jaws, and teeth. The use of strong melodic/rhythmic patterns in. verbal instructions has been found to be beneficial in maintaining better attention to and comprehension of the spoken word (Thaut, 1984; Mahlberg, 1973). Nelson et al (1984), in a review of the literature, found reports, of music games being associated with a client's first purposeful speech production. Litchman (1976) found significant increases in language comprehension when music was, used in the learning environment. Alvin (1975) also points out how music can serve as an important link between parent and child, providing a channel of communication and a model of how both parties can relate to each other.

Music therapy has also proved useful in reducing instances of noncommunicative speech patterns, which can impede progress in learning functional language skills. Bruscia (1982) had dramatic results when using music therapy in the assessment and treatment of echolalia. The treatment procedures employed reduced the subjects' echolalia from 95% of total utterances to fewer than 10% in any setting. Consistent throughout much of the literature is also the finding that skills and abilities acquired in the music therapy setting generalize widely across. In autistic persons one sees constant manifestations of pathological behavior in the perceptual-motor area. Perceptual and motor disturbances have been linked by a suggested relationship between motor behavior and the faulty processing of sensory input (Thaut, 1984; Nelson, et al., 1984). Characteristics of perceptual disturbances frequently encountered include tactile and kinesthetic receptor preference, hypo- and hypersensitivity to sensory input such as staring, visual and tactile detail scrutiny, covering ears etc.  preoccupation with isolated sensory impressions, and avoidance of new sensory experience. Motor disturbances are often manifested in delayed gross and fine motor development, poor body awareness/image, self-injury, and motility disturbances such spinning of self or object, toe walking, rocking, and/or hand flapping. Music therapy techniques are initially aimed at decreasing these behaviors, or breaking these stereotyped motility patterns. Rhythmic activities and movement to music at tempi other than that of body rocking, for instance, can be helpful in this regard (Thaut, 1984). Soraci, Deckner, McDaniel, & Blanton (1982) found that music possessing particular rhythmic characteristics was effective in reducing stereotypic behaviors. When engaged in stereotypes the individual is effectively "tuned out" from attending to events in the environment, but, when stereotypes were reduced or suppressed, the individual could be induced to, engage in productive learning activities. The music therapist can also structure the musical experience to ensure that movement responses to music are adaptive and nonrepetitive in nature (Nelson, et al., 1984).

The autistic individual can begin to exercise perceptual processes, and learn to relate tactile, visual, and auditory stimulation through manual exploration of instruments. Movement to music can also aid in the integration of tactile/kinesthetic and auditory perception and the differentiation of self/nonself (Thaut, 1984). Action songs may be beneficial in helping develop auditory-motor coordination and more refined body awareness/image (Alvin, 1975). Playing with mallets or on a keyboard can practice functional use of fingers and hands. On a more complex level, perceptual learning sequences can first isolate, and then combine, concepts of pitch, loudness, and tempo, by having the client respond in kind on percussion instruments.

From the most basic level to the most complex, music therapy techniques can meet the individual at his or her developmental level, breaking stereotyped behavior patterns and working toward the integration of different sensory experiences and appropriate motor responses.

 

 

References:

Alber, S. R., & Heward, W. L. (2000). Teaching students to recruit positive attention: A literature review with recommendations for practice and future research. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10, 177-204.

 

Alvin, J. (1975). Music Therapy for the Autistic Child. London: Oxford University Press.

 

Baker, B. (1982). The use of music with autistic children. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 20(4), 31-34.

 

Belanger, J. (1992). Teacher as researcher: Roles and expectations. An annotated bibliography.

 

Berger, P. and T. Luckmann. (1966) The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge., New York: Anchor Press.

 

Brophy, J. (1986). Teacher influences on student achievement. American Psychologist, 41, 1069-1077.

 

Bruscia, K.E. (1982). Music in the assessment of echolalia. Music Therapy, 2(l), 25-41.

 

Carnine, D. (1976). Effects of two teacher presentation rates on off-task behavior, answering correctly, and participation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 199-206.

 

Carnine, D., & Fink, W. T. (1978). Increasing the rate of presentation and use of signals in elementary classroom teachers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 35-46.

 

Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1990). Research on teaching and teacher research: The issues that divide. Educational Researcher, 19(2), 2-10.

 

Copper, L. R. (1990, April). Teachers as researchers: Attitudes, opinions and perceptions. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Boston, MA.

 

Corey, S. (1953). Action research to improve school practice. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

 

Darch, C., & Gersten, R. (1985). The effects of teacher presentation rate and praise on LD students' oral reading performance. British Journal of Psychology, 55, 295-303.

 

Elden, M. and R. F. Chisholm. (1993) "Emerging Varieties of Action Research: Introduction to the Special Issue," Human Relations, (46) 2, pp. 121-142.

 

Engelmann, S. (1992). War against the schools' academic children abuse. Portland, OR: Halcyon House.

 

Ernsbarger, S. C., Tincani, M. J., Harrison, T. J., Frazier-Trotman, S., Simmons-Reed, E., & Heward, W. L. (2001, May). Slow teacher/fast teacher: Effects on participation rate, accuracy, and off-task behavior by pre-K students during small-group language lessons. Paper presented at the 27th Annual Convention of the Association for Behavior Analysis, New Orleans, LA.

 

Fisher, C. W., & Berliner, D. C. (Eds.). (1985). Perspectives on instructional time. New York: Longman.

 

Gardner III, R., Heward, W. L., & Grossi, T. A. (1994). Effects of response cards on student participation and academic achievement: A systematic replication with inner-city students during whole-class science instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 63-71.

 

Goswami, D., & Stillman, P. R. (Eds.). (1987). Reclaiming the classroom: Teacher research as an agency for change. Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook.

 

Greenwood, C. R., Delquadri, J. C., & Hall, R. V. (1984). Opportunity to respond and student academic achievement. In W. L. Heward, T. E. Heron, D. S. Hill, & J. Trap-Porter (Eds.), Focus on behavior analysis in education (pp. 58-88). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

 

Heward, W. L. (1994). Three "low-tech" strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R. Gardner III, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. Eshleman, & T. A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 283-320). Monterey, CA: Brooks/ Cole.

 

Heward, W. L., & Dardig, J. C. (2001, Spring). What matters most in special education. Education Connection, 41-44.

 

Hinders, K. (1995). Dual certification and the regular education initiative. Journal of Teacher Education, 46, 200-208.

 

Holly, P., & Southworth, G. (1990). The developing school. London: The Falmer Press.

 

Jacullo-Noto, J. (1992, April). Action research and school restructuring: The lessons learned. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.

 

Kame'enui, E. J., Carnine, D. W., Dixon, R. C., Simmons, D. C., & Coyne, M. D. (Eds.). (2002). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

 

Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1982). The action research planner. Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press.

 

Koegel, R. L., Dunlap, G., & Dyer, K. (1980). Intertrial interval duration and learning in autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 91-99.

 

Kohn, A. (1993). Why incentive plans cannot work. Harvard Business Review, 71(5), 54-63.

 

Lieberman, A. (Ed.). (1988). Building a professional culture in schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

 

Litchman, M.D. (1977). The use of music in establishing a learning environment for language instruction with autistic children (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1976). University Microfilms International, No. 773557.

 

Lovitt, T. C. (1996). What special educators need to know. In W. L. Heward (Ed.), Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (5th ed., pp. 84-86). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

 

Maag, J. W. (2001). Rewarded by punishment: Reflections on the disuse of positive reinforcement in education. Exceptional Children, 67, 173-186.

 

Maheady, L., Mallette, B., & Harper, G. F. (1996). The pair-tutoring program: An early field-based experience to prepare preservice general educators to work with students with special learning needs. Teacher Education and Special Education, 19, 277-297.

 

Mahlberg, M. (1973). Music therapy in the treatment of an autistic child. Journal of Music Therapy, 10(4),189-193.

 

Munby, H., & Hutchinson, N. (1998). Using experience to prepare teachers for inclusive classrooms: Teacher education and the epistemology of practice. Teacher Education and Special Education, 21, 75-82.

 

Nelson, D., Anderson, V., & Gonzales, A. (1984). Music activities as therapy for children with autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Music Therapy, 21.(3),100-116.

 

Nixon, J. (1989, Winter). The teacher as researcher: Contradictions and continuities. Peabody Journal of Education, 64(2), 20-32.

 

Oja, S. N., & Pine, G. J. (1989). Collaborative action research: Teachers' stages of development and school contexts. Peabody Journal of Education, 64(2), 96-115.

 

Oja, S. N., & Smulyan, L. (1989). Collaborative action research: A developmental approach. Philadelphia: The Falmer Press.

 

Purnell, S., & Claycomb, C. (2001). Implementing reform: What Success for All teaches us about including students with disabilities in comprehensive school restructuring. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State School Boards of Education.

 

Reid, D.H., Hill, B.K., Rawers, R.J. & Montegar, C.A. (1975). The use of contingent music in teaching social skills to a nonverbal hyperactive boy. Journal of Music Therapy, 12(l), 2-18.

 

Rudduck, J. (1988). Changing the world of the classroom by understanding it: A review of some aspects of the work of Lawrence Stenhouse. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 4(1), 30-42.

 

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1996). When paradigms clash: Comments on Cameron and Pierce's claim that rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation. Review of Educational Research, 66, 33-38.

 

Sagor, R. D. (1992, April). Collaborative action research: A cultural mechanism for school development and professional restructuring. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.

 

Schmidt, D.C., Franklin, R. & Edwards, J.S. (1976). Reinforcement of autistic children's responses to music. Psychological Reports, 39(2), 571-577.

 

Semmel, M. I., Abemathy, T. V., Butera, G., & Lesar, S. (1991). Teacher perceptions of the Regular Education Initiative. Exceptional Children, 58(1), 9-24.

 

Soraci, S., Deckner, C.W., McDaniel, C. & Blanton, R.L. (1982). The relationship between rate of rhythmicity and the stereotypic behaviours of abnormal children. Journal of Music Therapy, 19(l),46-54.

 

Sterling, R., Barbetta, P. M., Heward, W. L., & Heron, T. E. (1997). A comparison of active student response and on-task instruction on the acquisition and maintenance of health facts by fourth grade special education students. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 151-165.

 

Street, L. (1986). Mathematics, teachers, and an action research course. In D. Hustler., T. Cassidy, & T. Cuff (Eds.). Action research in classroom and schools. London: Allen and Unwin.

 

Thaut, M.H. (1984). A music therapy treatment model for autistic children. Music Therapy Perspectives, 1(4), 7-13.

 

von Foerster, H. (1984) "Principles of Self-Organization -- In a Socio-Managerial Context." in H. Ulrich and G. J. B. Probst, (eds.) Self-Organization and Management of Social Systems: Insights, Promises, Doubts and Questions, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 2-24.

 

Whyte, W. F., D. J. Greenwood and P. Lazes. (1991) "Participatory Action Research: Through Practice to Science in Social Research." in W. F. Whyte, (ed.) Participatory Action Research, Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 19-55.

 

Williams, V. (1993). Effects of two teacher presentation rates during smallgroup social studies instruction on active student response, on-task behavior, and academic achievement by elementary students with severe behavior disorders. Unpublished master's thesis, The Ohio State University, Columbus.

 

 

 

 

 

An Assessment of the Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources of Senegal and Ghana - Review of Related Literature

Africa is already a continent under pressure from climate stresses  and is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Many  areas in Africa are recognized as having climates that are among  the most variable in the world on seasonal and decadal time scales.  Floods and droughts can occur in the same area within months  of each other. These events can lead to famine and widespread  disruption of socio-economic well-being. For example, estimates  reported at the workshop indicate that one third of African people  already live in drought- prone areas and 220 million are exposed to  drought each year. Many factors contribute and compound the impacts of current  climate variability in Africa and will have negative effects on the  continent’s ability to cope with climate change. These include poverty,  illiteracy and lack of skills, weak institutions, limited infrastructure,  lack of technology and information, low levels of primary  education and health care, poor access to resources, low management  capabilities and armed conflicts. The overexploitation of land resources  including forests, increases in population, desertification and land  degradation pose additional threats (UNDP, 2006). In the Sahara and  Sahel, dust and sandstorms have negative impacts on agriculture,  infrastructure and health. As a result of global warming, the climate in Africa is predicted to become  more variable, and extreme weather events are expected to be more frequent  and severe, with increasing risk to health and life. This includes increasing  risk of drought and flooding in new areas (Few et al. 2004, Christensen et al. 2007)  and inundation due to sea-level rise in the continent’s coastal areas  (Nicholls 2004; McMichael et al. 2006).  Africa will face increasing water scarcity and stress with a subsequent potential  increase of water conflicts as almost all of the 50 river basins in Africa are  transboundary (Ashton 2002, De Wt and in sub-Saharan Africa. Under  climate change much agricultural land will be lost, with shorter growing  seasons and lower yields. National communications report that climate  change will cause a general decline in most of the subsistence crops, e.g.  sorghum in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Zambia; maize in Ghana; Millet  in Sudan; and groundnuts in Gambia. Of the total additional people at  risk of hunger due to climate change, although already a large proportion,  Africa may well account for the majority by the 2080s (Fischer et al. 2002).  Africa is vulnerable to a number of climate sensitive diseases including malaria,  tuberculosis and diarrhoea (Guernier et al. 2004). Under climate change,  rising temperatures are changing the geographical distribution of disease  vectors which are migrating to new areas and higher altitudes, for example,  migration of the malaria mosquito to higher altitudes will expose large  numbers of previously unexposed people to infection in the densely  populated east African highlands (Boko et al. 2007). Future climate variability  will also interact with other stresses and vulnerabilities such as HIV/AIDS (which is already reducing life expectancy in many African countries) and conflict and war (Harrus and Baneth 2005), resulting in increased susceptibility and risk to infectious diseases (e.g. cholera and diahrrhoea) and malnutrition for adults and children (WHO 2004). Impacts of climate change and variability The climate of West Africa, particularly in its Sahelian part, has been undergoing recurrent variations of significant magnitude, particularly since the early 1970’s. The region has experienced a marked decline in rainfall and hydrometric series around 1968–1972, with 1970 as a transitional year. The decline in average rainfall, before and after 1970, ranges from 15% to over 30% depending on the area.This situation resulted in a 200km southward shift in isohyets. Average discharge in the region’s major rivers underwent concomitant and highly pronounced variations compared to rainfall values. An average decline in the range of 40–60% in discharge has also been observed since the early 1970s. The recorded decline in the discharge of major watercourses has resulted in the significant reduction in surface area of the main natural wetlands. The average area of the Hadéjia Nguru floodplain (on the Komadugu Yobe river system in northern Nigeria) decreased from 2,350km2 in 1969 to less than1,000km2 in 1995. That of the Inland Delta of the Niger River decreased from 37,000km2 in the early 1950s to about 15,000km2 in 1990. The surface area of Lake Chad evaluated at 20,000km2 during the wet years before 1970, has shrunk to less than 7,000km2 since the early 1990s, leading to the splitting of the lake into two parts. Today, only the southern part contains water permanently. The proliferation of floating weeds (water lettuce, water hyacinth, Typha, etc.) results from the general disruption of the climate in the region. This is particularly due to the reduced flow velocity in watercourses, temperature change as well as the deterioration of water quality. These weeds hinder fishing, navigation, the functioning of irrigation schemes, hydroelectric developments. Furthermore, they provide favourable conditions for the multiplication of vectors of water-borne diseases, such as malaria and the outbreak of new diseases (e.g. the Rift Valley fever). They also choke several water bodies of the region, including wetlands with biological diversity of global importance. The recharge of the region’s aquifers has also noticeably decreased, often due to the decline in rainfall and surface runoffs. For instance, on the Bani sub-watershed, across the upper reaches of the Niger River   in Mali, water tables reached their lowest levels in 1997. The decline in water tables has significant consequences on the depletion coef- ficients (e.g. the Senegal River at Bakel or the Niger River at Koulikoro). The variability of the climate has not spared the coastal areas. Very sensitive to erosion, beaches and dune ridges along West Africa’s coastal area show evidence of retreat at variable paces: from 1–2m, to more than 20–30m per annum in Senegal and along the Gulf of Guinea, respectively. In Senegal, an accelerated retreat of the coastline was observed between 1987 and 1991 and resulted in the disintegration of the dune ridges. The recurrent drought, resulting from climate change and variability, accelerates desertification, which in turn contributes to the persistence of drought. This cycle is likely to play a part in increased desert encroachment. The increase in discharge observed over some sub-watersheds such as the Nakambé, can be explained by in- creased runoff coefficient due to the degradation of the vegetative cover and the soil. As an illustration of the accelerated erosion, one can cite the case of the Niger River and its tributaries along its middle course, where important transport of solids was observed in the main riverbed, which consequently tends to silt up the latter. Climate variability directly affects West African countries’ national economies in general, and those of the Sahelian States in particular. Three main reasons account for the above situation: (a) the significant contribution of rainfed agriculture to the region’s economy; (b) the poor level of water control; (c) the poor replenishment of reservoirs on which some countries sometimes depend heavily for the generation of hydropower and electricity supply to industry and households. The city of Ouagadougou, which is supplied from impoundments, experienced severe supply shortfalls in 2002 and 2003. In February 1998, Ghana was faced with a severe energy crisis as a result of the drop in water level in Lake Volta, sometimes below the required threshold for feeding the turbines of the Akosombo dam. This dam, together with the more modest one of Kpong, account for 95% of Ghanaian electricity consumption. Due to these various reasons, it is hardly surprising that at the regional level, a significant correlation exists between annual rainfall and flow conditions on the one hand, and economic growth rates on the other hand. (IUCN   2004) Impacts on weather patterns Flooding Flooding is the most prevalent disaster in North Africa, the second most common in East, South and Central Africa, and the third most common in West Africa (AWDR, 2006). In North Africa, the 2001 disastrous flood in northern Algeria resulted in about 800 deaths and economic loss of about $400 million. In Mozambique, the 2000 flood (worsened by two cyclones) caused 800 deaths, affected almost 2 million people of which about 1 million needed food, 329,000 people were displaced and agricultural production land was destroyed (AWDR, 2006). Drought Between July 2011 and mid-2012, a severe drought affected the entire East Africa region and was said to be “the worst drought in 60 years.” Impacts on Water Supply and Quality Observable effects of climate change on water resources in Africa include flooding, drought, change in distribution of rainfall, drying-up of rivers, melting of glaciers and the receding of bodies of water.  The following discussion features some of the more prominent water resource systems in west Africa and how they are being affected by climate change.  The outlook looks bleak for these water resource systems and the governments of the African countries housing these water resource systems should take immediate action and galvanize First World nations which are the major pollutants to take notice and most importantly, take action. West Africa Entire economies suffer when the water levels of Africa’s huge rivers drop. Ghana, for example, has become totally reliant on the hydro-electric output of the Akosombo dam on the river Volta. Mali is dependent on the river Niger for food, water and transport. However, great stretches of the river are now facing environmental devastation as a result of pollution. Upper Senegal Basin This study evaluated the possible effects of climate change on the water resources systems and the impact of statistical bias correction on the forecasted climate change signals in the water-based variables taken in the Upper Senegal Basin in west Africa. The input for this study came from the bias corrected and original climate data from the regional climate model REMO. The Max Planck Institute for Meteorology-Hydrology Model (MPI-HM) was used to simulate the following variables - soil moisture, runoff, evapotranspiration, and the river discharge (Mbaye, et al., 2015). The Senegal River Basin is a good example of an area where development objectives could not be sustained because of the drought-induced desertification process. The main hydrologic constraint on development is the decrease in the annual flow volumes of the river, which emphatically points out that the water resources availability of the Senegal River Basin has been substantially reduced lternative time series mechanisms are hypothesized to account for the decreased flow volumes in recent decades. Another observation is that the desertification processes and the landscape degradation seen in the area has also been ascribed to climate change effects. The government’s efforts to address the desertification has been hampered by the existence of complex socioeconomic forces and the presence of basic hydrologic constraints to the development of the Senegal river basin development (Venema, et al., 2010). Sassandra River Shared By Guinea and Cote d’Ivoire The Sassandra River is a transboundary river located in west Africa that has its spring in the forested region in Guinea and at the Denguélé region of Côte d’Ivoire. It crosses the western part of Côte d’Ivoire and moves into the city of Sassandra in the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Its total length is 650 km with a basin area of 62,700 km2, with majority of it belonging to Cote D’Ivoire. Scientific studies have been done on the Sassadra transboundary river basin on the management and evaluation of its water resources.  The studies have shown that the water availability and runoff in the Sassandra River have increased from 10 to 13% during the past 50 years then decreased between 1971-195. Another study modeled the  climate model of spatial resolution, 2.5◦ × 3.75◦ with the A2 greenhouse gas emission scenario. Recently, Yao [22] worked on the hydrologic modeling of a tributary of the Sassandra River (the Lobo). This study was carried out using the regional climate model RegCM3 of spatial resolution of 0.44◦ × 0.44◦ under the A1B emission scenario. Yao improved a deficiency by reducing the scale of climate modeling to better appreciate local specificities (Coulibaly, et al., 2018). Lake Victoria Lake Victoria is the second largest freshwater lake in the world, surrounded by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.  Global climate change could cause Lake Victoria, to dry up in the next 500 years. Even more serious, is that the White Nile, one of the two main tributaries of the Nile, could lose its source waters in just a decade. University researchers have used ancient sediment from outcrops along the edge of the lake and generated   a water-budget model to see how the lake’s levels respond to changes in rainfall, evaporation, temperature, and solar energy. Their findings have indicated that a rapid lake level decline was very possible tens of thousands of years ago and could reoccur in the future. The scientists pointed out that the model they created predicts that at current rates of temperature change and previous rates of lake level fall, Lake Victoria could have no outlet to the White Nile in as little as 10 years. Every major port in Lake Victoria could be landlocked within a century, and Kenya could lose access to the lake in 400 years. The result would significantly affect the economic resources supplied by the lake and the livelihoods of approximately 40 million people living in the Lake Victoria Basin.  Kenya and Tanzania depend on the lake's freshwaters to support their fishing industries because the lake harvests more than one million tons of fish annually. Uganda would be deprived of its primary source of electricity via hydropower and the water that sustains the Nile during non-flood stages. The Kagera River basin, which is the main river that flows into Lake Victoria, feeds rainwater to Rwanda and Burundi which rely on agriculture and livestock production Lake Victoria gets most of its water from rain, and each year, the area gets about 55 inches of rainfall. The sediment analyzed from along the lake shows rainfall levels from 35,000 to 100,000 years ago were about 28 inches, or almost half of what they are today. The water-budget model in the study shows low amounts of rainfall caused the lake to dry up at least three times in the past 100,000 years and could happen again (University of Houston, 2019). Lake Chad Lake Chad used to span 10,000 kilometers, but today, it is just around 1200 sq. km. In 50 years, Lake Chad has shrunk to one-tenth of its previous size.  Scientists and lake residents have pointed out that climate change has been a huge factor in its shrinkage but have also blamed it on rising populations and the demands of the dams that were built for irrigation and hydroelectricity. The lake is important to the indigenous communities living around it in one of the world's poorest countries. The locals have been using their ancestral knowledge to overcome problems of scarce resources. The predicament of Lake Chad shows how climate change is affecting many different communities across Africa.  It has become an issue of survival, an issue of life, since hundreds of millions of people depend on it. Lake residents have clamored for solutions and have asked for urgent action for those people who are getting impacted who didn't create this climate change. Lake Chad is located in a big semi-arid region south of the Sahara desert called Sahel. Historically, the area has been sensitive to drought, and the lake’s depth has  fluctuated dramatically in size during prolonged dry periods. More than 30 million people rely on the lake’s fresh water, supporting economic activity, irrigation and fishing in the four countries the lake touches – namely Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria and Niger. With the lake’s shrinkage, the surrounding communities are struggling and there is intense competition for the dwindling resource. In some of the lakeshore communities, men have to look for work elsewhere during dry seasons when the lake can no longer sustain them. This has led to massive migration including people going to Europe to search for work. Often, it is the women and children who are left behind who have to fend for themselves in looking for food. To survive, many farmers across the lake are reviving an old technique known as zai where they dig pits to catch rainwater, then add compost and plant seeds. The technique concentrates nutrients and can boost crop yields by up to 500%.  Chad is among the poorest nations in the world with 62% of its population considered destitute, as most people rely on subsistence farming. Climate change has added to existing political and economic instability, driving further food insecurity (World Economic Forum, 2019). Mount Kilimanjaro Glaciers The gradual yet dramatic disappearance of the glaciers on Mount Kilimanjaro is a result of climate change (IPCC, 2001). The glaciers act as a water tower and several rivers are now drying up. It is estimated that 82% of the ice that capped the mountain, when it was first recorded in 1912, is now gone. (IPCC, 2001). Impacts on Agriculture and Food Across Africa the landscape is changing. Droughts, heat stress and flooding have led to a reduction in crop yields and livestock productivity. East Africa is facing the worst food crisis in the 21st century. According to Oxfam, 12 million people in Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia are in dire need of food. Rainfall has been below average with 2010/2011 being the driest year since 1950/1951, a serious problem for a continent almost entirely dependent on rain for its agriculture. The Oyebande and Odunuga (2010) study discussed the series of droughts of the past three decades that affected the Sudano-Sahelian zone of west Africa, particularly Niger, Volta and Senegal basins impacted the water resources, ecosystems and the fragile economies of at least 13 of the 16 countries of the region. Declining rainfall, highly variable in time and space has resulted in more than proportionate decrease in river discharges, and declining level of freshwater bodies. This situation translated into falling groundwater levels and accelerated desertification process, hence major crises of food insecurity and massive migration, which often leads to conflicts. The challenges and uncertainties associated with the impacts of future climate changes on water resources in West Africa are further compounded by many other factors, including regional demographic factors, nonexistent or inadequate water policies, inefficient management strategies and lack of reliable and adequate data. Impacts on ecosystem Climate change has already led to changes in freshwater and marine ecosystems in eastern and southern Africa, and terrestrial ecosystems in southern and western Africa. The extreme weather events have demonstrated the vulnerability of some of South Africa’s ecosystems. The migration patterns, geographic range and seasonal activity of many terrestrial and marine species have shifted in response to climate change. The abundance and interaction among species has also changed (IPCC, 2014). Coastal Wetlands Wetlands can be defined as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters” (Convention on the Wetlands, 1971, Article 1.1). This encompasses a wide range of aquatic ecosystems covering approximately six percent of the Earth’s surface (Rebelo et al., 2010), such as floodplains, swamps and marshes, peatlands, lakes, mangroves, reefs, and river deltas. In West Africa, while coastal wetlands are mainly composed of mangroves, they are sometimes backed by freshwater swamp forests such as in the Niger Delta; there are also secondary grasslands in the coastal lowlands that flood seasonally, such as in the vicinity of Accra in Ghana (Hughes & Hughes, 1992). Interest in the wetlands of tropical Africa has heightened because of their importance as hot spots for the development and maintenance of biodiversity; their vital role in providing food, water, and livelihood security to the mainly poor people living around them; and, most recently, for their ability to sequester atmospheric carbon (Adekolaa & Mitchella, 2011). Climate change could impact wetlands by changing their hydrologic and ecological environment, for instance through (Erwin, 2009; Hamilton, 2010): 1. Changes in aquatic thermal regimes (water temperature), with implications for thermal optima of plants and animals, rates of microbially mediated biogeochemical transformations, density stratification of water bodies, and dissolved oxygen depletion. 2. Changes in hydrological regimes of discharge and floodplain inundation (water flow), which determine the ecological structure and function of rivers and floodplains, and the extent and seasonality of aquatic environments. 3. Changes in freshwater-seawater gradients where rivers meet oceans, affecting the distribution of marine, brackish, and freshwater environments and the biogeochemical processing of river water reaching the coastal zone. Responses in species’ distribution from such changes are not well known, although it is known that many species in coastal wetlands respond to even small changes in water levels (Jalloh et al., 2012). Climate Change Outlook in Senegal Senegal remains vulnerable to environmental shocks including recurring natural disasters including floods and droughts, which will increase in magnitude and extent due to increased climate variability. Roughly 67 percent of Senegal’s population resides in the urban coastal zone, also the location of 90 percent of Senegalese industrial production. This coastal area is characterized by low-lying, rapidly expanding, high population suburbs, high water tables and poorly planned drainage systems. In addition to extreme events, rising sea levels place much of the coastal population, infrastructure and ecosystems at risk from flooding and erosion. Climate change has also impacted climate sensitive sectors like agriculture as 70 percent of production is rainfed.  It has also affected the fisheries and the livestock industries, which account for 20 percent of GDP and employ a majority of the workforce (Climate Links, 2017). Climate Change Outlook in Ghana Ghana’s vulnerability to climate change lies in its social and spatial differentiation. Each of the country’s ecological zone possesses unique socio-economic and physical attributes that characterize their resilience and sensitivity to the factors brought about by climate change. To lessen the impact of climate change, the measures provided have been reactionary. The responses from the government and the actions of the citizenry have not been proactive in adapting to the impacts of climate change which include high incidence of weather extremes and disasters, rising sea levels, declining rainfall variability and totals and increasing temperatures. All these are expected to have a negative impact on the country and its future. Farming is going to be affected because of the poor rainfall making the investments in agriculture less profitable, risky and expensive. Other important problems include dismal and insufficient infrastructure, restricted capacity in human resources development, a puny sub-regional network, insufficient financial resources and a small allocation in the national budget, the siltation of the river beds, flooding, excessive rainfall which causes a dangerous run-off, the poor location of settlements and farms in the country’s flood plains, inappropriate methods of farming leading to the compression of the soil which impedes infiltration, the degradation of land along the banks of the river, the lack of correct flood management structures, and the inappropriate disposal of solid waste.  All these challenges have to be addressed by the government and the private sector of Ghana as the effects of climate change (CC DARE, 2019). What future climate is to be expected? Significant uncertainties surround the science of the future climate. Most climate change scenarios predict a decline in precipitation in the range of 0.5–40% with an average of 10–20% by 2025. Many of these scenarios portray a generally more pronounced downtrend in flow regimes and the replenishment of groundwater. As a result of the major droughts and a number of recent floods with unusual magnitudes, specialists expect exacerbated extreme climate events in some parts of West Africa. Most coastal countries also considered scenarios of increase in sea level (0.5. to 1m over a century), with more or less significant losses in housing zones and economic infrastructures and the disappearance of significant areas of mangrove and coastal wetlands. However, it is important to point out that the climate change scenarios used do not consist of definite predictions but rather present plausible future climates. Considering the many possible future scenarios, what matters is the ability to manage the uncertainty. This includes reducing current vulnerability to climate variability and extreme   events as well as keeping management options open enough to deal with the worst-case scenarios and to take advantage of opportunities that may arise. Is West Africa adequately prepared to cope with this situation? West Africa has been faced with recurrent drought since the early 1970s. Many attempts have been made to respond appropriately to this situation. The most significant of them is unquestionably the creation of the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS). Since then, CILSS has been very active in the following fields: (a) agro-hydro-climatic data collection and management; (b) the setting up of an early warning system; (c) research and training, through its AGRHYMET Regional Centre (AGRHYMET: Regional Centre for Training and the Application of Agrometeorology and Operational Hydrology). Other initiatives include PRESAO (Seasonal Rainfall and Flow Forecast for West Africa) launched in 1998; the West and Central African component of the Global Hydrological Cycle Observing System (HYCOS-AOC) whose pilot phase is being implemented since 2000; the West and Central African component of the FRIEND Project (Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Data) set up since 1992; and more recently, the AIACC programme for assessing the impacts and adaptations to climate change which includes projects for West Africa. Finally, the project on Strengthening the Capacities of CILSS Member States to Adapt to Climate Change, which was launched in October 2002 at the AGRHYMET Regional Centre. Alongside these research initiatives, efforts aimed at water control were also ob- served. For instance, Burkina Faso has built more than 1,500 small water reservoirs over the past three decades and is currently experimenting with artificial rainmaking. The latter is envisaged in other countries of the sub-region (e.g. Senegal). Likewise, countries such as Niger, Benin, Mali and Senegal have also implemented the policy of constructing small water reservoirs. As mentioned previously, the region comprises only few large dams but many projects are planned. For example, there are more than 20 large dam projects that are planned on the Niger River alone (Fomi, Tossaye, Kandadji, Zunguru, Onitsha, etc…). Overall, the most noticeable responses to the recurrent drought and pronounced climate variability experienced for the past three decades in West Africa relate mainly to data collection and analysis. Indeed,   this is very important, but is far from sufficient to significantly reduce the vulnerability of the region to climate change and variability. With regard to the future climate, many countries of the region have proposed, in their national communications, structural and economic measures that should help them to strengthen their capacity to adapt to the predicted changes. Yet, the solutions proposed by the States are often technically, financially and/or politically unachievable by individual countries. Many of these adaptation measures may be relevant only at the regional level. Conclusion Right now, the effects of climate change are already being felt by people across Africa. Evidence shows that the change in temperature has affected the health, livelihoods, food productivity, water availability, and overall security of the African people. According to the Climate Change Vulnerability Index for 2015, seven of the ten countries most at risk from climate change are in Africa. Africa has seen a decrease in rainfall over large parts of the Sahel and Southern Africa, and an increase in parts of Central Africa. Over the past 25 years, the number of weather-related disasters, such as floods and droughts, has doubled, resulting in Africa having a higher mortality rate from droughts than any other region. Therefore, additional studies need to be carried out in order to get more knowledge on the impacts of climate change in West Africa and other parts of the world, also recommended by Mamadou Lamine and others, 2015, especially as surface andground waters are usually used for human consumption.